Glossary

An efficiency certification showing a power supply converts at least 90% of mains electricity to usable power at typical loads. Common in mid-range to high-end PCs.

The standard operating frequency of a processor core, measured in gigahertz (GHz). This is the speed at which your CPU runs under normal conditions.

The firmware that starts your computer and manages hardware before the operating system loads. You can adjust settings here, but changes rarely help performance.

The maximum speed at which a GPU or CPU can run when thermally and electrically safe, usually higher than base clock and used for demanding tasks.

The number of clock cycles it takes for a RAM module to access and return data after receiving a request. Lower CAS latency means faster response times.

A smaller processor chip designed to be combined with others to create a complete CPU or GPU. Used to improve performance and reduce manufacturing costs.

A group of integrated circuits that manages communication between a computer's CPU, memory, and peripherals. It acts as the central hub for data flow.

Processing units in Nvidia graphics cards that handle parallel calculations. More cores generally mean faster performance for compatible tasks.

DDR4 is a type of RAM that transfers data at faster speeds than its predecessor DDR3, using less power. It's the standard memory type in most computers built between 2014 and 2022.

DDR5 is the latest generation of RAM that offers faster data transfer speeds and greater power efficiency than DDR4, found in modern computers and laptops.

A discrete graphics processor installed as a separate component, rather than built into the CPU. Handles visual rendering and video tasks independently.

A DIMM is a stick of RAM that plugs into a slot on your motherboard. It's the standard way computers add memory.

Nvidia's technology that uses AI to upscale lower-resolution images to higher resolutions while maintaining visual quality and boosting frame rates in games.

Memory that detects and corrects single-bit errors automatically. Used in servers and workstations where data accuracy is critical.

A computing standard that allows graphics cards to communicate with a motherboard using a high-speed PCI Express interface.

The physical size and shape of a device or component. Determines compatibility with cases, slots, and other equipment.

FSR is AMD's upscaling technology that renders games at lower resolution, then uses AI to enlarge the image for sharper visuals and better frame rates.

Intel technology that lets a single processor core handle two threads of work at the same time, boosting performance on multi-threaded tasks.

An integrated graphics processor built into a computer's main processor. It handles graphics without needing a separate graphics card.

Instructions per clock: a measure of how many computing tasks a processor completes in each clock cycle. Higher IPC means better performance at the same speed.

The fastest memory built into a CPU that stores recently used data. Larger L1 cache improves performance for demanding tasks.

A small, fast block of memory on a processor that stores recently used data. Larger L2 cache typically improves performance without much cost.

A large, fast memory store built into your processor that holds frequently used data, reducing the time needed to fetch information from slower main memory.

LGA 1700 is Intel's CPU socket for 12th-gen (Alder Lake) and 13th-gen (Raptor Lake) processors. It replaced the older LGA 1200 standard.

A compact slot on a motherboard that connects solid-state drives and wireless modules directly without cables. The fastest storage option in modern PCs.

A motherboard size standard smaller than standard ATX, measuring 244 × 244 mm. Fits in compact cases whilst supporting most desktop features.

A small motherboard form factor measuring 170 × 170 mm, used in compact PC builds and small office computers.

A power supply with detachable cables that connect only to the components you need, reducing clutter inside your PC case.

NVMe is a fast storage interface that connects solid-state drives directly to your computer's motherboard, delivering much quicker data speeds than older SATA drives.

PCIe is the standard internal connection used to attach graphics cards, storage drives, and other expansion cards to a computer's motherboard.

PCIe lanes are the parallel data pathways that connect components like graphics cards and storage drives to your motherboard. More lanes mean faster data transfer.

A power supply unit converts mains electricity into the correct voltage and current for your computer components.

A graphics technique that simulates real light behaviour to create photorealistic images by calculating how light rays bounce around a scene.

SATA is the standard cable and connector used to link hard drives and SSDs to a computer motherboard. It's been the industry standard for nearly two decades.

A manufacturing method that places electronic components directly onto circuit boards using automated machines, enabling smaller and denser device designs.

A small memory module used in laptops and compact devices. SO-DIMM is half the size of a standard desktop RAM stick.

The CPU socket used by AMD's Ryzen 7000 and newer processors. It replaced the older AM4 standard and uses a different pin layout.

Individual cores within a GPU that perform parallel calculations, enabling fast graphics rendering and data processing.

Thermal Design Power: the maximum heat output, measured in watts, that a processor is designed to produce under typical operation.

A high-speed connection standard that combines data transfer, video output, and power delivery in one cable. Thunderbolt 4 reaches up to 40 Gbps and works with USB-C connectors.

A security chip that stores encryption keys and authentication data separately from your main processor. Used to protect passwords, files, and Windows login.

UEFI is the modern firmware that starts your computer and loads the operating system. It replaces the older BIOS standard.

The latest USB standard offering speeds up to 20 Gbps for data transfer. It's faster than USB 3.1 and backwards compatible with older USB devices.

USB-C is a modern reversible connector standard used for charging and data transfer on phones, laptops, and tablets. It's smaller and faster than older USB types.

Video RAM (VRAM) is memory built into your graphics card that stores image data and textures for fast display. More VRAM lets you handle larger, more detailed scenes.

VRM (Voltage Regulator Module) converts your power supply's voltage to precise levels needed by your processor or graphics card. It sits between the PSU and chip on the motherboard.

Intel's upscaling technology that uses AI to enlarge lower-resolution game images to higher resolutions with minimal quality loss.

XMP is Intel's technology that automatically applies optimised memory settings to boost RAM performance beyond standard speeds.

A display resolution of 1920 × 1080 pixels, the standard for Full HD video and a common screen size for laptops, monitors, and TVs.

A display resolution of 2560 × 1440 pixels, offering sharper images than 1080p and smoother gaming than 4K on mid-range hardware.

A display resolution of 3840 × 2160 pixels, four times sharper than standard HD. Common in modern TVs, monitors, and cameras.

A display resolution of 7680 × 4320 pixels, four times sharper than 4K. Most consumer content doesn't yet exist in 8K.

A colour space that includes a wider range of green and red hues than sRGB, used mainly by photographers and designers for professional work.

The proportional relationship between a screen's width and height, expressed as two numbers (e.g. 16:9). It determines the shape of the image you see.

The range of colours a display can show. A wider gamut means more vibrant and accurate colours, especially important for photo and video work.

A monitor with a curved screen that wraps slightly towards the viewer, designed to reduce eye strain and improve immersion during gaming or viewing.

A colour space standard used in digital cinema that reproduces a wider range of colours than standard sRGB, often found in high-end monitors and TVs.

A measurement of how accurately a display shows colour compared to a reference standard. Lower numbers mean more accurate colours.

A high-dynamic-range video format that delivers brighter highlights, darker shadows, and a wider colour range than standard video. Requires compatible content and a capable display.

AMD's technology that synchronises a monitor's refresh rate with a graphics card's output to reduce screen tearing during gaming.

Nvidia's technology that synchronises a monitor's refresh rate with a graphics card's frame output to reduce screen tearing and stuttering.

High Dynamic Range technology that displays a wider range of brightness and colour on compatible screens, making images look more realistic and detailed.

HDR10 is a standard for displaying brighter, more detailed images with a wider colour range. It's the most common HDR format in TVs and streaming services.

A type of LCD screen that offers wide viewing angles and accurate colour reproduction, commonly used in monitors and laptops.

A display backlight technology using thousands of tiny LEDs to control brightness across different screen zones, delivering deeper blacks and better contrast than standard LED panels.

A unit of brightness measurement for screens. One nit equals one candela per square metre of light output.

A display technology using organic light-emitting diodes that produce their own light, offering perfect blacks and vibrant colours without a backlight.

The number of pixels packed into one inch of a screen, measured in pixels per inch (PPI). Higher density means sharper text and images.

Pixels per inch: a measure of screen sharpness based on how many pixels fit into each inch of display. Higher PPI means sharper text and images.

The number of times per second a display updates its image, measured in hertz (Hz). Higher refresh rates produce smoother motion.

The time a display pixel takes to change colour, measured in milliseconds. Lower response times reduce motion blur in fast-moving images.

sRGB is a standard colour space that defines how colours appear on screens. It ensures consistent colour reproduction across devices.

A fast but narrow-viewing display panel type that prioritises response time. Common in budget and gaming monitors.

A monitor with an aspect ratio wider than the standard 16:9, typically 21:9 or 32:9, giving a panoramic view across a single screen.

A display technology that offers better contrast and colour reproduction than TN panels, though with slower response times. Common in monitors and TVs.

Variable Refresh Rate: a display technology that syncs the screen's refresh rate to your GPU's output, eliminating screen tearing and stuttering during gameplay.

Ultra-fast memory built into a storage device that temporarily holds frequently accessed data, speeding up read and write operations.

A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a traditional mechanical storage device that uses spinning platters and read/write heads to store and retrieve data.

HMB (Host Memory Buffer) allows an SSD to use your computer's RAM as temporary cache, improving performance without adding dedicated memory to the drive.

Input/Output Operations Per Second: a measure of how many read and write operations a storage device can perform each second.

A type of flash memory that stores multiple bits per cell, offering higher capacity than SLC but slower speeds and shorter lifespan.

A networked storage device that connects to your home or office network, allowing multiple devices to access and backup files from one central location.

QLC NAND stores four bits of data per cell, offering high capacity at low cost but slower performance than faster NAND types.

A data storage method that splits files across multiple drives to boost speed. Offers no backup protection if a drive fails.

A data storage method that writes identical copies of your files to two drives simultaneously, protecting against single drive failure.

The speed at which a storage device retrieves data from random locations, measured in operations per second (IOPS) or megabytes per second (MB/s).

The speed at which a storage device reads data from consecutive locations. Measured in MB/s, it reflects real-world performance for large files.

The speed at which a storage device writes data in a continuous stream. Measured in megabytes per second (MB/s) or gigabytes per second (GB/s).

A small, ultra-fast memory buffer on a solid-state drive that temporarily stores data before writing it to the main storage cells, improving performance.

A solid-state drive (SSD) is a storage device with no moving parts that reads and writes data using flash memory, making it much faster and more durable than traditional hard drives.

TBW measures the total amount of data a solid-state drive can write before it fails. Higher TBW ratings indicate longer device lifespan.

A type of flash memory that stores three bits per cell, balancing cost and performance. Common in affordable solid-state drives and USB sticks.

A network standard that transfers data at 2.5 gigabits per second, faster than standard gigabit Ethernet but cheaper than 10GbE.

The maximum amount of data that can travel through a network connection in a given time, usually measured in megabits per second (Mbps).

A wireless technology that focuses the signal from a router or access point in the direction of connected devices, rather than broadcasting equally in all directions.

A network protocol that automatically assigns IP addresses to devices so you don't have to set them manually. Most home routers use DHCP.

DNS (Domain Name System) translates website addresses like google.com into numerical IP addresses that computers use to connect to servers.

A security protocol that encrypts your DNS requests so your internet service provider and others cannot see which websites you visit.

A wired networking standard that connects devices using physical cables to share data and internet. Faster and more reliable than WiFi for stationary equipment.

A data transfer speed of one billion bits per second, commonly used to measure broadband internet and network connection quality.

A protocol that establishes secure encrypted tunnels between devices, commonly used in VPNs and mobile networks to protect data in transit.

The fourth version of the Internet Protocol, the system that assigns unique numerical addresses to devices on networks. Still the most widely used addressing standard today.

IPv6 is the newest internet protocol that assigns unique addresses to connected devices, replacing the older IPv4 standard with vastly more available addresses.

Variation in the delay of data packets travelling across a network. High jitter causes stuttering in video calls and online games.

A button or feature that instantly cuts your internet connection if your VPN drops, protecting your real IP address and data from exposure.

The delay between sending data and receiving a response, measured in milliseconds. Lower latency means faster, more responsive connections.

A wireless network where multiple devices (nodes) relay data to each other, extending coverage across larger areas than a single router.

Multiple input, multiple output technology that uses several antennas to send and receive data simultaneously, boosting wireless speed and reliability.

A wireless technology that lets a router talk to multiple devices simultaneously instead of one at a time, improving network efficiency.

NAT translates your device's private IP address into a public one when communicating with the internet, allowing multiple devices to share a single connection safely.

A wireless technology that divides a channel into smaller sub-channels to send data to multiple devices at once, improving network efficiency.

An open-source software tool that encrypts your internet connection and masks your location by routing traffic through a remote server.

The failure of data packets to reach their destination during transmission over a network, usually expressed as a percentage.

A network setting that redirects incoming internet traffic from your router to a specific device or application on your home network.

Quality of Service (QoS) is a network feature that prioritises certain types of traffic, ensuring critical data gets faster delivery than less important content.

A VPN feature that lets you route some traffic through the VPN and other traffic directly through your ISP. Useful for speed or accessing local services.

The amount of data a network or device can transfer in a given time, usually measured in megabits per second (Mbps). Higher throughput means faster data speeds.

A Virtual Private Network encrypts your internet traffic and masks your location, making your online activity private and harder to track.

The latest Wi-Fi standard (802.11ax) that delivers faster speeds, better performance in crowded networks, and lower power consumption than Wi-Fi 5.

Wi-Fi 6E is the latest Wi-Fi standard that adds a new 6 GHz frequency band, offering faster speeds and less network congestion than Wi-Fi 6.

Wi-Fi 7 is the latest wireless standard, offering faster speeds and lower latency than Wi-Fi 6. It uses the 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz bands for better performance.

A modern VPN protocol designed for speed and simplicity, using stronger encryption with fewer lines of code than older alternatives.

Technology that uses speakers to produce sound waves that cancel out background noise, making audio clearer and listening more peaceful.

aptX is a Qualcomm audio codec that compresses wireless music to play over Bluetooth with better quality than older standards.

The amount of data used to encode audio per second, measured in kilobits per second (kbps). Higher bitrates generally mean better sound quality.

Software or hardware that compresses and decompresses audio or video files. Codecs reduce file size whilst preserving quality for storage and playback.

A digital-to-analogue converter transforms digital audio signals into analogue sound that your speakers or headphones can play.

An immersive audio format that adds height channels to surround sound, creating a three-dimensional listening experience with sounds moving above and around you.

DTS:X is an immersive audio format that creates three-dimensional sound using height channels and object-based mixing, allowing sound to move freely around and above listeners.

The range of audio frequencies a speaker or headphone can reproduce, measured in Hertz. Wider range means it can play deeper bass and higher treble.

Audio files or playback that captures frequencies beyond standard CD quality, typically 24-bit/96 kHz or higher, for greater detail and clarity.

The opposition an audio component offers to an electrical signal, measured in ohms. It affects how speakers and headphones work with amplifiers.

LDAC is Sony's audio codec that transmits high-quality music over Bluetooth at up to 990 kbps, roughly three times faster than standard Bluetooth audio.

Audio compression that preserves every bit of the original sound, so playback is bit-for-bit identical to the source. Quality is perfect, but file sizes are larger than lossy formats.

The lowest frame rate achieved in the bottom 1% of frames during a gaming session, showing worst-case stuttering moments.

Frames per second: the number of individual images a game displays each second. Higher FPS means smoother motion.

The time in milliseconds between one frame of a game being drawn and the next. Lower frametimes mean smoother gameplay.

The delay between pressing a button and seeing the result on screen. Lower input lag makes games feel more responsive.

The fixed pixel grid of a display, set by the manufacturer. All images look sharpest when the source matches this resolution exactly.

When a game's frame rate drops or becomes inconsistent, causing the image to jump or freeze momentarily rather than play smoothly.

A visual glitch where the screen displays parts of two different frames at once, creating a horizontal line across the image during fast motion.

A technique that renders a game at a lower resolution, then enlarges the image to fit your screen, often using AI to improve quality and preserve performance.

V-Sync synchronises your graphics card's frame rate to your monitor's refresh rate, reducing screen tearing during gameplay.

A lightweight, portable package that bundles an application with everything it needs to run, isolated from your system.

Software that lets your operating system communicate with hardware like printers, graphics cards, or displays. Without drivers, your devices won't work properly.

A security method where only the sender and recipient can read messages. No one else, including the service provider, can access the content.

Low-level software built into hardware that controls how a device works. Firmware updates fix bugs and add features without replacing the device.

Software that creates and manages virtual machines on a physical computer, allowing multiple operating systems to run simultaneously.

The core software component that manages communication between applications and your computer's hardware. It controls memory, processor time, and device access.

Malicious software designed to harm, steal from, or control your device without your permission. Includes viruses, spyware, and ransomware.

A cyber scam where criminals impersonate trusted organisations to trick you into revealing passwords, payment details, or other sensitive information.

Malicious software that encrypts your files and demands payment to unlock them. A serious threat to both personal devices and businesses.

A security technique that runs untrusted software in an isolated environment, preventing it from accessing your files, settings, or other programmes.

A security method that requires two separate forms of ID to access your account, such as your password plus a code from your phone.

A technology that lets one physical computer run multiple separate operating systems or applications at the same time, each in its own isolated environment.

A software vulnerability unknown to the developer, actively exploited by attackers before a fix is available.